It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. Frankfurt Examples. Slider with three articles shown per slide. 7388). There is, however, a subtle but important distinction between PAP in its original formulation as a necessary condition and the manner in which the notion of alternate possibilities is presented within the twin world condition. What Happened to One of Classical Music's Most Popular Pieces? The Psychology Today interview with Jean Piaget took place in 1970 at the height of his influence. The first major challenge to this interpretation was advanced in Germany in the 1960s, where the historian Fritz Fischer published a startling new thesis on the origins of the war which threatened to overthrow the existing consensus. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. One thing is clear: any international agreement on prevention of nuclear armaments must be backed by actual and efficient controls. Zagzebski, L. (2000). Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed at Fifty - JSTOR Daily Why, according to Kane, does this example fail to show what Dennett thinks it shows?, Frankfurt Examples. PAP(s) is not vulnerable to Frankfurts or similar counter-examples. Such a limitation would have the drawback of making impossible also the development of nuclear power for peacetime purposes. It is 980 too many. With the convenience of modern transportation and future innovations to come, Wright asks why proximity to the city is important. Black is prepared to go to considerable lengths to get his way, but he prefers to avoid showing his hand unnecessarily. A Princeton University senior sounded off on "The Ingraham Angle" in response to his op-ed in . Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. The interview captured many facets of Piaget's remarkable career: his roots in epistemology and natural history; his interests in the underlying processes of . Focusing on organic growth, Wright sees it as the natural next step for humanity to remove itself from busy city life based on (what he saw as) likely future innovations in transportation. This might be all the time we would have to bring about the relocation of our population and industry. What Is the Ontological Argument for God's Existence? Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(3), 551565. But E differs across the scenarios themselves: for it just so happens that S engages in an immoral act in (1) but a moral act in (2). This is supposed to show that even if we think we have alternative possibilities, we don't actually. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. Wholehearted commitment: we reach a level where we realize there is no need for further assessment. Reasons reactivity and incompatibilist intuitions. The presidents cabinet consists of If this race is inevitable, we have every reason to delay its beginning as long as possible in order to increase our head start still further. c) Which of the following arguments would a supporter of Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. Opponents contend, among other arguments, that the bombings were unnecessary to win the war or that they constituted a war crime or genocide. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. The Journal of Philosophy, 66(23), 829839. Mapping my twin world condition onto the Frankfurt scenario, we should understand Joness action E to be congruent across W1 and W2. The Role of History in Franck's Fairness931 20 Ibid, at 86. In his original article, Frankfurt suggests that a twitch might be used to indicate that Jones is about to decide to do A (as opposed to no twitch for B). Voltaire supposedly kept up his prodigious output by spending up to 18 hours a day writing or dictating to secretaries, often while still in bed. He received the National Book Foundation's 5 Under 35 Award for his story collection Third Class Superhero, and was a finalist for the PEN Center USA Literary Award. This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. It may be asked whether we cannot prevent the development of military nucleonics in other countries by a monopoly on the raw materials of nuclear power. "For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences.". Third parties help bridge the gap between state and federal legislators. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America could say to the world, "You see what sort of a weapon we had but did not use. We are ready to renounce its use in the future if other nations join us in this renunciation and agree to the establishment of an efficient control.". Frankfurt-style examples, responsibility and semi-compatibilism. If this is the case, then we are in a position that is ultimately no different to the original formulation of PAP in which it is necessary that the subject could have done otherwise. If no choice of targets, with a total area of five hundred square miles of American territory, contains a large enough fraction of the nation's industry and population to make their destruction a crippling blow to the nation's war potential and its ability to defend itself, then the attack will not pay, and may not be undertaken. s the chief of staff. Typically, we want to ascribe moral responsibility to Jones because he decided to carry out an act that, let us say, we judge to be morally reprehensible. Obviously, no time should be lost in inaugurating a study of this problem by experts. votes that a representative takes based on a consensus of his or her constituents The necessity of some role for alternate possibilities does not, however, in and of itself, make necessary the clause that S (or whoever) could have done otherwise. When discussing alternate possibilities, then, the notion of alternate possibilities should be understood to mean that there is at least one alternate possibility that is considered morally praiseworthy, or at the very least not immoral. So he waits until Jones is about to make up his mind what to do, and does nothing unless it is clear to him (Black is an excellent judge of such things) that Jones is going to decide to do something other than what he wants him to do. It could be suggested that the danger of destruction by nuclear weapons can be avoided -- at least as far as this country is concerned -- either by keeping our discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or else by developing our nuclear armaments at such a pace that no other nations would think of attacking us from fear of overwhelming retaliation. In this we also provide trending questions which come out of recent recent exams. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. Putting all of this together, we can now see how each sufficient condition contains a different form of, and therefore a different role for, alternate possibilities. What does Frankfurt mean by "wholehearted commitment"? - my will is free if it conforms with my second order desires (my will is my own). Once this is achieved, the large installations and the accumulation of explosive material at present earmarked for potential military use will become available for important peacetime developments, including power production, large engineering undertakings, and mass production of radioactive materials. Where S in W1 engages in the same action (E) as S in W2 then this is sufficient to ascribe moral responsibility to S in either world.Footnote 3In short, we have available to us the means of ascribing moral responsibility even where S could not have done otherwise. The Founders resolved the tension . In J. Jordan, & D. Howard-Snyder (Eds. Jefferson's key arguments for independence consisted primarily of the Crown's imposition of taxes and trade restrictions onto the Colonies, but was quite clear about the issue not being the severity of the offense but much more in that the Crown had overstepped lines of mutual respect and consent, ie "No Taxation Without Representation." Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. This site is using cookies under cookie policy . 1969 Journal of Philosophy, Inc. From a progressive modernist's point of view, it was a further exercise of freedom. This theory also proposes that the psyche comprises three aspects: the id, ego, and superego. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. We believe that these considerations make the use of nuclear bombs for an early unannounced attack against Japan inadvisable. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? Including a soundproof, well-lit living room and a double-faade of glass to control the effects of outside temperature, Le Corbusiers habitable towers were to include at least twelve dwelling floors each and accommodate 1,000 people per hectare (2.47 acres). Does libertarian freedom require alternate possibilities? Ap World Flashcards | Quizlet Within ten years other countries may have nuclear bombs, each of which, weighing less than a ton, could destroy an urban area of more than ten square miles. What are they supposed to show, according to Dennett? What is the "flickers of freedom objection?" Every attempt to impede the international control agencies would have to be considered equivalent to denunciation of the agreement. Irrespective of which world one is referring to, then, S should be morally condemned for performing E in (1) but morally praised for the action carried out in (2). The disagreement began on January 3, 1932, when Le Corbusier published an article in The Times which ran under the title A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities Le Corbusier Indicts Them as Cataclysms and Describes His Ideal Metropolis. Discussing cities like Paris, New York, and Chicago, Le Corbusier explains his vision for what we know today as Ville Radieuse, which he calls in the article the Green City. I conclude by arguing that while neither PAP(s) nor the twin world condition is necessary for an ascription of moral responsibility, given that each nevertheless makes reference to alternate possibilities in some form or other (as yet to be discussed), what is necessary is that one of these condition is satisfied: for where both fail to be satisfied, one cannot hold the agent of action morally responsible. As a role for alternate possibilities is necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility, and as different forms of this role are inherent within the two sufficient conditions described above, what is necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility is that one of these aforementioned sufficient conditions is satisfied. Never mentioning Le Corbusier by name, Wright nonetheless references his contemporarys argument by using Le Corbusiers terms and ideas directly and responding (unfavorably) to them, but The Times introduction makes the connection to the earlier article by Le Corbusier perfectly clear, describing Wrights ideas as diametrically opposed to Le Corbusiers. ArchDaily 2008-2023. As a sufficient condition for moral responsibility, the principle of alternate possibilities reads as follows: A person is morally responsible for what they have done if they could have done otherwise. B editors. To illustrate: In twin world scenarios, all must be equal apart from the one thing that distinguishes each world from the other which, in this case, is the presence or absence of alternate possibilities. ), Faith, freedom, and rationality (pp. Amenities are spread along the highways and homes are nestled in parks and gardens and small farms, all surrounded by beautiful natural landscapes; Wright argues that 1,000 people to the hectare (2.47 acres) is looking not so far ahead. However, in the past, scientists could disclaim direct responsibility for the use to which mankind had put their disinterested discoveries. The benefit to the nation, and the saving of American lives in the future, achieved by renouncing an early demonstration of nuclear bombs and letting the other nations come into the race only reluctantly, on the basis of guesswork and without definite knowledge that the "thing does work," may far outweigh the advantages to be gained by the immediate use of the first and comparatively inefficient bombs in the war against Japan. We have large accumulations of poison gas, but do not use them, and recent polls have shown that public opinion in this country would disapprove of such a use even if it would accelerate the winning of the Far Eastern war. Writing that American skyscrapers have yet to earn the title of architecture, but are merely small objects such as statuettes or knick-knacks, magnified to titanic proportion, Le Corbusier proposes his plan for the skyscraper. A REPORT TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR, JUNE 1945. Despite the intricacies of some of these continuing debates, focus remains on PAP as a necessary condition for moral responsibility. Third parties shift voters' attention away from major-party candidates. In 1932, both described these ideas in The New York Times; in these two articles Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier made their differing beliefs perfectly clear to the public. We now consider the question of how an effective international control of nuclear armaments can be achieved. 95110). FF: if he identifies, is wholeheartedly committed, it doesn't matter where it came from. This argument is one of the most widespread and powerful still being debated in academic and intellectual circles today, and it is important to understand it. honoris causa by the University of British Columbia. 231248). . What if cult-man is brainwashed? Agency without avoidability: defusing a new threat to Frankfurts counterexample strategy. We therefore feel it is our duty to urge that the political problems, arising from the mastering of nuclear power, be recognized in all their gravity, and that appropriate steps be taken for their study and the preparation of necessary decisions. It is true that some irrational element in mass psychology makes gas poison more revolting than blasting by explosives, even though gas warfare is in no way more "inhuman" than the war of bombs and bullets. If the United States were to be the first to release this new means of indiscriminate destruction upon mankind, she would sacrifice public support throughout the world, precipitate the race for armaments and prejudice the possibility of reaching an international agreement on the future control of such weapons. b) Instead it has harnessed us to itself and plunged us into slavery, he wrote. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(2), 440446. It is clear shallow arguments appealing to culture and sovereignty, as well as Western clumsiness and hypocrisy, have shielded human rights abuses from scrutiny. England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. Ginet, C., & Palmer, D. (2010). Therefore, in making suggestions for the postwar organization of nucleonics, a discussion of political problems cannot be avoided. Where S engages in action E, if (a) and (b) are satisfied then S is morally responsible for E. Stating this does not negate the possibility that S could still be held morally responsible for E, however, even where (a) and/or (b) fail to be satisfied, should another sufficient condition (as yet unspecified) be met. It is typeset bySheridan Journal Services, Waterbury, VT, and printed byThe Sheridan Press, Hanover, PA. However, such a quantitative advantage in reserves of bottled destructive power will not make us safe from sudden attack. The Japanese government instilled fierce, killing nationalism in the Japanese people, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons. Young, G. The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example. Accumulations of this kind could be rapidly converted into atomic bombs if a nation should break away from international control. In no other type of warfare does the advantage lie so heavily with the aggressor. However, even though these countries may value human life less than the peoples of Western Europe and America, and even though Russia, in particular, has an immense space over which its vital industries could be dispersed and a government which can order this dispersion the day it is convinced that such a measure is necessary -- there is no doubt that Russia, too, will shudder at the possibility of a sudden, disintegration of Moscow and Leningrad, almost miraculously preserved in the present war, and of its new industrial cities in the Urals and Siberia. This protection can come only from the political organization of the world. Harry Frankfurt describes the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) as follows: A person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise (Frankfurt 1969, p.829; emphasis added). The answer is that even though the largest now known deposits of uranium ores are under the control of powers which belong to the "western" group (Canada, Belgium and British India), the old deposits in Czechoslovakia are outside this sphere. In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r What is it supposed to show, and why? Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 41(4), 505522. The answer to this question was given above -- the compelling reason for creating this weapon with such speed was our fear that Germany had the technical skill necessary to develop such a weapon and that the German government had no moral restraints regarding its use. The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. Jones is incapable of making a decision that differs from what Black wants him to decide, and subsequently is incapable of doing other than what Black wants him to do. Philosophia, 35, 171180. c) Princeton senior claims campuses' leftward lurch creates generation of Atomic bombs containing a larger quantity of active material but still weighing less than one ton may be expected to be available within ten years which could destroy over ten square miles of a city. Germany, he argued, bore the main share of responsibility for the outbreak of the war. Widerker, D. (1995). Le Corbusiers opinions of technology during his time continue to ring eerily true today. Palmer, D. (2011). In the following sentence, underline the collective noun once. b) Philosophia 44, 961969 (2016). His dreams of a certain amount of land for each person have been realized to a point in American suburbs, but many of these bedroom communities lack the amenities on which Wright would have insisted. Unless an effective international control of nuclear explosives is instituted, a race for nuclear armaments is certain to ensue following the first revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world. Igniting the flicker of freedom: revisiting the Frankfurt scenario. In the following sentences, circle the word that each underlined participial phrase modifies and draw an arrow from the participial phrase to the word it modifies. What is necessary is that either PAP(s) or the twin world condition is satisfied. is wrong with it, and describe briefly and without argument how it might appropriately be revised. Robinson, M. (2012). Do you agree that under certain circumstances, R2P should override sovereignty?
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